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Yue-Qi Li, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
Wei-Hua Huang, College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 2430072, China
De-Chen Jiang, State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
Bao-Hong Liu, Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Stomatological Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
Bin Su, State Key Laboratory of Soil Pollution Control and Safety, Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Excited-State Energy Conversion and Energy Storage, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
Yang Tian, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
Jing-Juan Xu, State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
Ping Yu, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100190 China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
Feng Zhao, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Environmental Technology, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
Huang-Xian Ju, State Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Life Science, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, ChinaFollow
Jing-Hong Li, Hefei National Research Center for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; Beijing Life Science Academy, Beijing 102206, China; Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology, New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, ChinaFollow

Corresponding Author

Huang-Xian Ju (hxju@nju.edu.cn);
Jing-Hong Li (jhli@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn)

Abstract

Electrochemical processes lie at the core of biological function, governing energy transduction, metabolic flux, and molecular signaling. Recent advances in electrochemical science now allow these processes to be probed and controlled with unprecedented spatial, temporal, and chemical resolution. In this review, we present an integrated framework that progresses from fundamental mechanisms to analytical technologies and functional modulation. We begin by outlining electron transfer pathways in mitochondrial respiration, microbial extracellular electron transfer, and DNA- and protein-based charge conduction, followed by the principles of photon-electron conversion in photosynthesis and the central role of redox equilibrium in coordinating cellular responses. We then highlight electrochemical analytical strategies that enable multiscale biological characterization, including biosensing, electrochemical and scanning probe imaging, electrogenerated chemiluminescence detection, and measurements of membrane potentials and neurotransmitter dynamics. Emerging platforms such as flexible biointerfaces, ultramicroelectrodes, and nanopore systems further extend these capabilities to in vivo and single-molecule contexts. Finally, we discuss how electrochemical inputs can be used to regulate metabolic pathways, microbial and protein activities, and neural signaling, enabling precision therapeutic and bioengineering applications. Together, these developments establish electrochemistry as a powerful foundation for decoding and directing biological systems.

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

Electrochemical analysis, Single-cell electrochemistry, Biological electron transfer, Photosynthesis, Electrochemical biosensing

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Publication Date

2025-12-28

Online Available Date

2025-12-08

Revised Date

2025-11-19

Received Date

2025-10-10

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